A. Station Keeping
Good station keeping is an indispensable fundamental condition for good and safe steaming in formation. This should be perfectly clear to every watch officer, and as a result of this knowledge every one of them should have the energetic determination to be always properly in position, and to improve continually in his manner of attaining this end.
A general principle is that an officer will steam better the fewer engine signals (i. e., changes of speed or of the engine revolutions) he needs for keeping station. Beginners generally steam in a way much too unsettled. They are often too rash with engine signals, and still they do not keep in place. The reason in most cases is that they do not sufficiently take into account the inertia of the ship. They believe that any change in the speed of the engines should appear at once, forgetting that the ship always needs some time in which to take up the speed corresponding to the number of revolutions, both in case of increase of speed and of reduction. In forging up in column, for instance, they will wait too long before ordering the prescribed speed, as a result, shooting ahead by the excess momentum of the ship; then will considerably decrease the speed, and presently fall behind again by not increasing the speed again in time ; and then when steaming up will again run too far ahead. Such unsettled procedure, by which the ship never becomes steady, is in the first place a cause of much strain on the engineer personnel, and it also makes a needless consumption of fuel. Finally, it will in most cases be communicated to the rear in increased ratio, and is liable to unsteady the entire formation.
For further details in this regard, see under (a) below. In cruising (i.e., outside of evolutions or special maneuvers), it is generally correct to use, not changes of rate of speed, but only changes of the number of revolutions; because the guide ship is steaming at a steady speed, and consequently there is no reason at all for any great change of speed, if sufficient attention is paid. In evolutions, on the other hand, this means will not be sufficient, on account of the rapidly changing situations, and because any mistakes in regard to distance and bearing must always be rectified as quickly as possible. It will very often be necessary to work with changes of the rate of speed (i.e., from standard to half, or standard to full speed, etc.). Nevertheless, in performing evolutions, one should be as sparing as possible with orders. When one begins energetically to educate one’s self in this, marked progress will soon appear. In general, the following maxims may be established for the guidance of the watch officer when steaming in formation:
- Keep in station.
- Manage with the fewest possible engine signals.
- When cruising (i.e., not maneuvering), work only with small changes of revolutions.
- In evolutions, use changes of rate of speed as may be necessary.
Good steering is, of course, of the first importance for good station keeping, as well as for good navigation in general. The watch officer must use great circumspection in choosing his helmsmen, and spare no pains in training them. When doing evolutions, the best helmsman should always be at the wheel, because then good steering is of especial importance.
(a) In Column.—On the jackstaff, at suitable height, an iron crossbar must be fixed, which, according to the height of the eye of the watch officer, cuts at a certain point on the stern of the next ahead (as, for instance, lower edge of stern anchor), when the ship is accurately in station. In good weather, by close attention even a small shifting of this mark up or down can at once be detected, and thereby any forging ahead or dropping back. One may also very soon be able to see about what distance one is ahead or astern of station when the crossbar cuts at a certain distance above or below the point where it should properly cut. Consequently, while cruising in favorable conditions of weather, one can in general entirely dispense with a sextant. In any case, the officer who has the watch should try to make himself as independent as possible in this regard, by constantly training his eye. In carrying out evolutions, on the other hand, two sextants must always be at hand. Remember that the above mentioned mark will vary with increased consumption of coal, and therefore that one must verify it anew every day.
For the night, an electric light shining very faintly must be arranged on the jackstaff accurately at the height of the crossbar, and the watch officer must know how this light is to be held in regard to the next ahead's lantern.
As also, very often, steaming is done at 400 meters distance (for instance, before anchoring in a roadstead with a tideway), it is well to arrange, over the above mentioned crossbar, another smaller one, for steaming at 400 meters. For those occasions when the jackstaff is to be removed (clearing for action) a wooden substitute staff must be prepared, provided with a proper mark at equal height.
Steady and uniform steaming is a preliminary condition for good cruising in column. The leading ship must accurately hold the speed ordered, and every ship astern of her must carefully endeavor to vary as little as possible from that speed. Any great change is communicated generally in an increased ratio to the ship astern, and therefore, although the guide be steaming uniformly with standard speed, the presence of only one unsteady ship near the head or middle part of a long column may result in forcing the ships at the rear of the column to vary from full speed to slow or steerage way. Even stopping or backing has been observed in such cases. Figure 1 shows an instructive example of this. It gives a graphical representation of the changes of speed, according to the engine-room logs, of the ships of a squadron not yet trained, during a twelve hours' night cruise. Such conditions are, of course, extremely uncomfortable and prejudicial, both on the cruise and in the fighting line. They can only be avoided, however, when every watch officer fully appreciates the cause and with painstaking attention endeavors to steam steadily. For this, it is absolutely necessary to pay close attention continually to the speed signals of the ships ahead and to the behavior of the above mentioned mark on the jackstaff. Avoid also the frequently occurring fault of taking up too late a new increase of speed ordered, because of being rather too near the next ahead and wishing first to settle back somewhat. In such circumstances, if one waits until the mark on the jackstaff visibly shifts, one will generally fall much behind and will have to recover from this error by correspondingly increasing the speed. But such compensating costs time and coal.
Good attention to one's own speed signals and night indicators is also of importance. Have the man on station correctly instructed in these operations and have him always report, on change of speed, that the cones stand properly, or that the night speed indicator is properly operated. The next astern will feel grateful for the pains taken in this regard.
Uniform cruising of a trained squadron must be demanded under all circumstances, both for the cruise and for the line of battle. During a cruise, for instance, in a four hours' watch, for all the ships astern of the guide, only a small number of engine signals (for instance, a maximum of 10) under normal conditions should be given, and all the signals must require only slight changes of revolutions. Notwithstanding these, however, the ships must keep in station steadily. A good means for educating watch officers in this respect is for the commanding officer to have the watch engineer tabulate the engine signals given during the night, by watches, and then make these known to the officers concerned.
When cruising with screened lights and in fog, quiet and steadiness in the column are of especial importance. In fog, in the first place, a certain unrest is likely to make itself felt because some ship, not properly in station, seeks to get connection with the ship ahead and afterwards is compelled to reduce speed below the normal, in order not to come too close. In such case one must strive energetically to re-establish steadiness in the column as soon as possible. Steady cruising in fog is by no means difficult, if no great changes of course become necessary, nor any turning out for passing ships. Keep the fog-buoy of the ship ahead between the bow and the fore bridge. Of great importance is good operating of the search-lights. The stations to be taken and the duty to be carried out in fog must be regularly assigned by station bill for each division (electrician watch) and carried out without delay on the command "fog" (to be given-also to the engine-room, under which come the electricians).
If, for instance, by one's own insufficient attention or by faulty handling of the speed signals of the ship ahead, you should get so close to the latter that danger of collision will arise, you must sheer out and reduce speed. But do not sheer out more than necessary, and return into the column as soon as possible. In a trained squadron, the necessity for sheering out should not in general occur.
(b) In Line Abreast.—Besides the proper distance, the proper Bearing must also be kept. For keeping the proper distance, good course steering by all the ships (especially, of course, by the guide) is very important. Corrections of distance, when on correct bearing, are made by slight changes of course (in general 1/8 to 1/3 point is sufficient). One then steams over a somewhat longer course than the guide ship does, and therefore must increase the speed a little, in order to remain on the right bearing. Any changes of course of ½ point or more, it is best to communicate to the ship next away from the guide, by flag semaphore, in order to facilitate his keeping of distance.
The bearing must continually be verified on the alidade, and, if necessary, be at once corrected by increasing or reducing the speed. If both distance and bearing have to be rectified, one has mainly only to increase speed, if behind, or to decrease it or maintain it (according to the amount that the course is changed it the same time), if too far ahead.
Although by change of speed the other ships are not influenced, one must nevertheless endeavor to steam as quietly and steadily when in line abreast as when in column. To do so, it is necessary to act at once, as soon as you perceive any changing on the alidade. Especially beware of standing too far ahead. Also remember that the sight line of the alidade must be correspondingly shifted when making any change of course, and that a correct hearing can only be taken when the ship, for the moment, heads exactly on her course. Therefore, have it reported to you each time from the steering compass when the ship is accurately on, and use these moments for verifying' the bearing.
(c) In Line of Bearing.—Steaming in line of bearing is generally found very difficult by the beginner; but as a matter of fact it is scarcely more difficult than steaming in line abreast, when one has fully grasped the nature of the line of bearing formation. Changes of distance, when on correct bearing, are obtained by altering course by a certain amount (1/8, ¼, and ½ point) and altering speed; but this change of speed, in contrast to the practice in line ahead, is either an increase or a decrease, according as the change of course is made towards the advanced or towards the retired flank. If the speed ordered be maintained unchanged, then if a change of course be made towards the retired flank—which is the same as towards the normal to the line of bearing—the ship would forge ahead too fast; while by a change towards the other flank, she would fall back. This can be clearly seen from Figure 2. This must be clearly kept in mind when cruising in line of bearing. Of especial importance in any change of course towards the retired flank is die immediate reduction of speed, because otherwise one will very quickly get ahead of the line, which must be avoided absolutely. Small changes of revolutions are generally not sufficient in such a case; even in changing course by only l/± point, one will, as a rule, be compelled to take a lower rate of speed.
In case one is too far ahead, yet at the correct or too great a distance, if one attempts to correct the bearing by only reducing the speed, one will make the distance too great. One must therefore at the same time make a change of course towards the advanced flank, paying sharp attention to the bearing, in order that the normal speed, in connection with the quick dropping back, may be resumed in time. If, when ahead of the line, you have much too little distance, so that during the settling back you must at the same time head away somewhat from the guideship's course, a quick regaining of the correct bearing is possible only by a considerable reduction of speed, because of the conditions discussed above. If, on the other hand, you are too far astern and have the correct or too little distance, then by merely forging1 ahead up to the line of bearing you will get too close or still closer. You must therefore at the same time head off a little, and be careful with the increase of speed, in order to avoid getting ahead of the line. When, .in this case, your distance is too great, you must, if necessary, change course somewhat towards the guide (advanced flank), and then you may more energetically increase the speed. Figure 2 makes this consideration clear. A comparison of Figures 2 and 3 shows that on an obtuse line of bearing (less than 4 points from abeam), in a change of course towards the retired flank, the necessary reduction of speed decreases, and that in general all the conditions for cruising become more favorable and easier. In general, stick to the rule that keeping correct bearing must be rated higher than keeping correct distance, and that, above all, you must never forge ahead of the line. It goes without saying, however, that the fault in distance should not exceed a certain measure (for instance 50 meters), notably when the distance is too little.
B. Changes of Direction of Column
In general, these are made only in column or in compound formations. It is of importance that the formation be accurately maintained; hence, that each ship, immediately after having completed the turn of the number of points ordered, will see the masts of her file leaders in line and be at the proper distance. To this end she must turn in the same water and on the same arc as the leading ship does. An ugly fault frequently occurring, notably with beginners, is that the turn is made too late, so that, even by the use of the full helm angle available, it is in most cases no longer possible to avoid going outside the arc of turning of the guide ship. In such a case, since it is necessary in connection with the turn to get back again into the column, a more or less large arc is formed at the turning point (Figure 4), which quite appreciably impedes the turning of the ships following, looks very bad, and besides, on account of the longer track and the larger angle to be made, makes the line unsteady and breaks it up.
Very often the further fault is added, that, because the stern of the turning ship ahead deviates from the tangent, the course is not accurately kept, but her stern is followed outwards. The tendency to sag away is thereby substantially increased and correct turning is almost impossible (Figure 5). The marked swinging out of the stern of the ship ahead makes at first a rather alarming impression at the normal distance with the modern long ships. It takes some time before the stern begins to return again to the tangent: and as one's own ship, on account of the loss of speed of the ship ahead, will at first run up on her, a beginner is likely to think that there is danger of collision. In reality such is by no means the case, if one's own ship is properly in station; the ship, it is true, will approach rather near to the stern of the ship ahead, but as soon as she begins turning, the distance will be opened again by her own loss of speed and the taking up of speed again by the ship ahead.
Once a too wide sweep has been made by the bad turn of a ship, it is not so easy for the ships astern to avoid it, because the direct follower, wishing to remain on the correct arc of turning, is likely to come very close to the displaced ship ahead, and is thereby often led to commit the same fault. This applies especially to the night, notably when going with screened lights, because then the darkness makes it difficult to make out the ships already standing on the new course, and consequently to recognize the fault of the ship ahead in time.
From the foregoing, the following rules for making changes of direction of column may be derived:
1. See that the ship, when the next ahead begins to turn, is kept as accurately in station as possible; on no account be appreciably too near. In order to avoid this, the speed, if necessary, must be at once reduced as required, at the hoisting of the turning signal. In large turns especially (of 8 to 16 points), too little distance is uncomfortable and likely to result in going wide.
2. Keep accurately on the course, as soon as the next ahead begins turning. If no suitable objects for the helmsmen are available ahead and it is not possible to depend sufficiently upon the steering compass (which is in the conning tower), on account of too sluggish movement, then have the course continually checked from the standard compass ; and also, by day, look astern, in order to detect at once any turning of the ship by the deviation of the stern to the right or left from the rest of the column following after.
3. Begin turning at exactly the same point as the ship ahead, on the supposition of course that she turned correctly. In doing this the first few times, one must at once look for marks by which to fix the time for beginning to put over the helm. For the ships of the Braunschweig class (battleship, 13,000 tons), for instance, when one's own ship at standard distance is correctly in station and is holding the course accurately before turning, the following marks may be given:
(a) The passing of the flagstaff of the ship ahead through the jackstaff..
(b) The approaching of one's own bow to the swirl of the ship freely from the fore bridge. In a dark night, the time required for passing over the distance between the stern of the ship ahead and one's own bow at the known speed may furnish a good clue. The time counts from the moment when one observes the deviating of the stern of the ship ahead, by the moving of the stern light. Here also, one must be in station when this turning mark is used. Of course no absolute dependence may be placed on such marks, because they are influenced by faults in one's own position and in the turning of the ship ahead; but they are always a more or less good clue.
4. Keep your ship during the turning in such a way, be proper use of rudder, that the bow will always be somewhat within the wash of the ship ahead. For the ships of the Braunschweig class, a ship's beam is a good measure. On no account get outside the wake of the ships ahead.
5. Better begin turning too early than too late. Turning too soon may be easily rectified by easing the helm and, if necessary, reducing" the speed. Turning too late almost always results in going wide and endangers the unity of the line. When, from any reason, the helm was moved too late, however, then at once apply a larger or the full helm angle, and energetically increase the speed, because otherwise one always drops behind. During the course of turning, notably during its last part, the observing of the angle between the column already formed on the new course and the midship line, from the conning station to the stem, will furnish a good clue to determine whether the ship with the helm kept as it is will still come around in time or not.
6. If you had reduced the speed before turning because too dose, then, when beginning to turn or very soon afterwards, resume standard speed; otherwise you will be sure to drop behind. In some circumstances, even an increase of speed will be necessary.
7. When the ship ahead, by faulty turning, goes outside the arc of turning of the guide ship, then with all attention avoid repeating this fault. In such a case, take your direction from the ship preceding her, or if she be already out of sight, then from the line of the ships that have already turned, and, if necessary, bear a weatherly helm, in order not to come too close to the ship ahead. In turns up to 8 points in such a case, you may, without any fear, head at first for the middle or even the bow of the ship ahead. If need be, there always remain the stopping of the inboard engine and a reduction of speed. When the fault of the ship ahead is great, you will in most cases range alongside of her at a pretty close distance.
8. When the ship ahead is turning correctly, then, before or during your own turn, only reduce speed if really necessary, because every reduction of speed means some disturbance of the ships astern. Also increase speed again as soon as possible, otherwise you will almost always get behind.
9. As the leading ship, one must after a turn at once come to the course accurately, because otherwise the maneuver will be made difficult for the ships astern, and the forming of the properly aligned column on the new course may be materially delayed. For aids to getting the ship on the new course quickly, see the remarks under C.
The correct and careful execution of turns (up to 16 points), is an excellent criterion for the seamanlike cruising of individual ships and of the entire squadron. It is therefore to the best interest of every watch officer to improve continually as much as possible in this undoubtedly not very easy art.
C. Simultaneous Turning.
After a turn together has been carried out, the ships should at once lie correctly in the new formation. To secure this, the squadron helm angle must be exactly known, the turn must be begun promptly when the signal goes down; while turning, regulating must be done, by increasing or reducing the helm, as well as by changing speed, in case the ship were not in station when the turn began, or is getting out of station during the turn; and finally, uniform procedure must be observed on board all ships, in easing the helm and meeting her. After the completion of the turn, the position should be promptly corrected, if necessary, in order that the line may be dressed in the shortest time. With turns of 16 points when in column, this is not so simple, because in the first place it is difficult to judge whether you are outside the line to the right or to the left. Deception in this regard is possible notably when the guide ship does not at once get steady on the new course. It is best to observe by the double glass, during the steadying, what the approximate new line of dressing will be, according to the position of the ships in front; then you will soon get a reliable clue for your own correction. The rapidity with which the line in such a case is re-established is also a good standard for judging the efficient handling of individual ships and of the squadron. Some indication as to the side to which correction will probably be necessary may be obtained also by taking a bearing of the new guide ship after turning 8 points. Any quick rectification of alignment, which of course must be made by every ship independently of the next ahead, becomes impossible, however, if the leading ship fails to steer a steady course at once.
When turning together from column to line, every ship ahead of the new guide ship must as soon as possible measure the distance from her former next astern, to see whether this distance is correct or not, and to be able still to make it up, if necessary, during the turn. For the same reason, when turning from line abreast into column, the ships lying between .the old and the new guides, and the former guide herself, must at once measure the distance to the ship next towards the new guide.
In order that the watch officer may be able to make rectifications, and to ease and steady correctly, the last four points of simultaneous turns must be reported from the standard compass, always in the following manner: 4 points, 3 points, 2 points, 1 ½ points, ¾, ½, ¼, 1/8, Mark! When turning together 16 points also, this reporting of the turning by points is necessary. The final steadying on course is best left to the helmsman, giving the command: "Steady on the course," after meeting her and steadying. As stated above, it is desirable for the accuracy of cruising that, for easing the helm and meeting her in large turns together (4 points or more), the same procedure should be carried out on board all ships. In any case, within the ship, entire uniformity among the watch officers must be exacted.
D. To Anchor.
As a rule, anchoring is done in column or in a compound formation, seldom in line or line of bearing. The point is that, after anchoring, the ships may lie accurately in position. This can only be obtained if each ship endeavor to the utmost to be in station on the way to the anchorage, and to keep in station when reducing speed before anchoring. Any unsteadiness arising in the column shortly before anchoring, by bad behavior of a ship, is extremely disturbing. This holds good especially for column, with which we are chiefly concerned. Close attention should therefore be paid to any forging ahead or lagging back, and any necessary correction of speed should at once be taken. A good angle taker should constantly observe the behavior of the ship and report. One's own observing of the crossbar on the jackstaff is, as a rule, not sufficient for the exact steaming that is necessary immediately before anchoring. Especially beware of being too far ahead, because this fault can be remedied soon enough only with difficulty, as the reductions of speed follow each other quickly. In case you are too close, when the signal "Stop, as soon as in station" goes down, the only means then available for correcting position is backing the screws, which, however, always means an offense against the ship astern of you and therefore should be strictly avoided. For the same reason, take care during the run with engines stopped not to still forge ahead of place, due to greater speed momentum. Good steering is, of course, very important for good keeping of station. In a well-trained squadron all the ships must anchor at about the same moment. It must not occur that the rear ships of the column anchor in succession, because of having kept somewhat back through over-caution, thus having to steam up to place after the leader has anchored.
E. Weighing Anchor.
After the anchor is aweigh, the ship must be kept on the same heading as before, until the signals about formation, course, and speed are hauled down. A frequent fault is that the rear ships start ahead too late, whereby at once the line will be lengthened out. It is of advantage to know the compass bearing of the line at anchor, because then the maneuvers necessary for carrying out the signaled orders about formation and course can be decided better.
F. Derangements of Steering Gear.
Although the entire steering gear is of course carefully examined daily before weighing anchor, and at least once daily while under way for a longer time than one day, cases of refusal or damage may occur, due to faults in operation or other causes. The officer of the watch must therefore always know how to act in such cases. The necessary instructions are given in the proper place of the ship's regulations, in which the derangements to be expected in ordinary cruising, as well as in action, must be treated in detail. Each commanding officer will also make it his business to train the watch officers practically in this respect, by frequent exercises when cruising singly. It is to be observed from a general point of view, that, in case of any disablement of helm, one must at once endeavor to keep the ship on her course by means of the screws. If this appear to be impossible, on account of the position of the rudder or for any other reason (as for example, wind and sea), without endangering the safety of other ships or the continuity of the line, the prescribed breakdown signal must at once be given. The mere shifting from the steering engine (when the reserve steering engine is ready for use, as should always be the case in evolutions) must have been exercised so well that it can generally be carried out without making the breakdown signal and without any accident becoming apparent from outside the ship.
The watch officer is also responsible that his helmsmen shall be familiar with the steps to be taken in cases of disablement of helm, as far as they affect their stations. The call "Helm refuses" must not cause any commotion nor even momentary hesitation, neither with the watch officer himself nor with his helmsmen. On board a large ship there are usually, in addition to the conning tower, the following reserve steering stations, each of which are occupied by one man, and which can therefore be immediately used upon uncoupling the connections farther ahead: the central station, and the main or reserve steering engine spaces (according to the engine in use). The duties of the several stations must be definitely prescribed by regulations, carefully prepared and posted in the rooms in question, and the watch officer must continually care for sufficient instruction and oversight of the men.
In case of all those disablements of steering-gear in which men below decks have to steer, exact keeping of course or station by the assistance of the compasses provided in the lower steering stations will generally not be possible. The watch officer, in a similar manner to the case of steering with the screws, will have to observe the behavior of the ship closely and at once counteract any incorrect steering by direct helm commands. The main thing is not to allow the ship to become unsteady but to keep her as quiet as possible. It will, of course, be further advantageous to call the attention of the helmsman to all circumstances affecting the steering of a steady course, as for instance, the effect of wind and sea.
G. Final Remarks.
If the watch officer should get into a situation where there is danger of collision, it is above all important to get the stem pointed clear of the other ship, since touching with the side or stern is always less dangerous for either ship.
Further, the watch officer, when cruising in narrow waters should remember that each ship is responsible for her own navigation. Blind following in the wake of the ship ahead under such conditions is often dangerous, on account of drift by current or wind. Careful observing of current and wind, and making the necessary allowance for it, must be insisted upon.